CHAPTER - 3 | WAR OF INDEPENDENCE | O LEVELS PAKISTAN STUDIES | HISTORY (2059 / 1) | (CLASS NOTES FOR REVISION)

 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

  

REASONS FOR OUTBREAK:

  

· POLITICAL:

 -       The British introduced the Doctrine of Lapse, allowing them to confiscate the territory of any local ruler who did not have a real male heir. This did not please the Indian landlords as they were being deprived for their lands and thus rebelled.

 

-       In 1857 the Mughal Emperor had little power left but was still an important symbolic figure. The British moved the Royal family form the Red fort of Delhi to a more obscure Qutub Sahi. Indians saw this as mistreatment.

 -       At a lower level of society there was a resentment of the lack of opportunities for native Indians in the Civil service. This resulted in more hatred for the British as their rights were not considered.

 -       In 1934, English replaced Persian as the official language of administration. This created resentment because it wasn’t only seen as cultural intervention but also increased Indian unemployment as they didn’t know English.

· MILITARY:

 -       Greased Cartridge Incident

-       Most of the sepoys were Indian, whereas officers were always British.

-       They sent Indian troops to fight in Afghanistan. Unpopular as Hindus didn’t want to leave mother India and Muslims didn’t want to fight other Muslims.

 

 · RELIGIOUS:

-       Furthermore, regular rumors that Muslim, Hindu, Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity. Angered Indian solders who felt that their religion was under threat.

 

-       Hindu tradition suttee was abolished, widow remarriage allowed.

 

-       Pardha was ridiculed by the British

-       Christian Missionaries made schools, taught Christianity, expected locals to give up own religion. Employers sometimes offered incentives for this.

 

·      SOCIAL:

 

-       British had a very low view of the Indians. The tried to spread their own culture, and considered the Indians inferior and were reluctant in giving them high posts.

 

-       The British were tried in special courts, but Indians/Locals were tried in ordinary courts. Judgments were made by the British and were often cruel/harsh.

 

REASONS FOR FAILURE:

 

· DISUNITY:

-       There was disunity among the rebels. They lacked a common purpose and everyone fought for personal interest, often refused to fight unless they were harmed. …Nana Sahib, only interested in getting doctrine of lapse reversed and was ready to come to terms if this demand was accepted.

Thus, Muslims lacked a common cause from the Indians, weakening them.

 -       Some of the princely state rulers supported the British in order to maintain their own power. Such as the ruler of Kashmir, who sent 2000 troops to help the British. Thus their strength against the war grew, and the Indians were less united.

 

-       Lord Canning, the Governor General, adopted a conciliator policy towards the

 

rebels. He allowed many concessions for them: Announcing the rebels who gave up their arms were to be forgiven. Thus, quite a few leaders left the battlefield to join in negotiations with the government.

  

-       There had been a great deal of vandalism in the war, thus the local population was harmed and became displeased with the rebel’s nefarious activities. Instead, they sympathized with the British who stood for law and order. Hence the British strength increased even further, rebels weakened.

  

 · BRITISH STRENGTH

 - Punjab and Sindh had been conquered by the British with their troops from Bengal and Central Asia. So, when the troops rebelled in 1857, the Punjabis and Singhies did not support. Meaning a much smaller amount of rebels against the British might.

- The Last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, who was considered the main leader of the revolt showed incompetence during the war. More interested in poetry and luxury, and neglected the affairs of combat. Thus, his poor administration meant weak control.

 -          The British had experienced the Industrial Revolution and were technologically much more superior. Thus they had advanced weaponry, giving them an edge over the Mughal/Indian forces who had traditional and outdated weaponry.

 

-          The British were a superpower at that time and had well trained, confident soldiers led by outstanding generals such as Edwards and Neil. Who fought with devotion and loyalty to the British Queen. The rebel leaders in comparison were indecisive and short sighted and hence were easily defeated by the British.

 

 RESULTS OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE:

  

FAILURES:

 -       The Indians failed their main objective of ending British Rule/Driving them out of the subcontinent. They not only failed, but ended as slaves to the British. They British attained complete autonomy over the country and established a rather tyrannical rule over the Indians.

 

-       The Mughal Empire was removed from the Indian political scene forever as the country came directly under the British Crown by the 1858 proclamation by Queen Victoria. The Muslims were greatly dismayed by this, as the main figure of Muslim authority was exiled.

 

-       The war left a trail of mutual fear and distrust in the minds of the ruler and the ruled. The British became cautious, rigid, reactionary in their attitude towards he Indians especially the Muslims, considering to be solely responsible for the revolt, since the wanted to restore the Mughal Empire. Thus the British began to develop a policy of suppressing the Muslims in their every walk of life. This hatred continued for half a century.

 

-       The army taking the initiative in the War of Independence was thoroughly revised. The number of European Soldiers was increased. Dismaying the Indians, who took part in an attempt to gain better posts and salaries through the revolt. Instead, some soldiers became jobless

 

-       The forces that had rebelled were executed by the British. Cruel punishments, such as being blown to pieces by a canon were used.

 

 

SUCCESSES

 

-       The British tried to being about a change in their administration and policies. They ended the “British East India Co’ to the happiness of the Indians who were now relieved of the Company’s tyranny. Thus, there now to be ruled through a new, possibly less cruel ruler.

 

-       New reforms and constitutional changes were introduced. An act for the better government of India was passed and introduced. It involved a Secretary of State with a council of 15 members to help him.

 

-       Policy of centralization in the 1833 act was changed, and new principles of decentralization and Indianisation were recognized. And Indians could now be elected in provincial councils and thus attain power at a provincial level.

 

-       Moreover the 1861 Act restored legislative powers to the governments of Bombay and Madras. New Legislative Councils were established in many provinces including Punjab, Bengal etc. Thus, Indians were given much more political say, which had been an aim of theirs in the War of Independence.

 

-       The British policy of annexations was changed. The queen declared no more extensions to their present territorial possessions. Also, the Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned and Indians could now inherit ancestral lands with ease.

-   Greased Cartridge supply stopped. Indians relieved of a very sensitive Religious issue.